Task A: The First Americans
Migration of the First Americans
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Learning About the First Americans: Let's get some historical perspective: The American Civil War ended about 150 years ago, the Declaration of Independence was signed about 240 years ago, and Christopher Columbus "discovered" America about 520 years ago. That might all seem like a long time ago, but American History goes back more than 10,000 years, to when the first Americans made their way to the North and South American continents. These early people left very few written records, so researchers study other items they left behind, kind of like detectives studying clues .
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Today, scientists are still trying to find out more about the first Americans, but it is widely believed that they migrated on foot from Siberia, in Asia, to present-day Alaska. Today, a strip of ocean called the Bering Strait separates Alaska and Asia. But there was a time when a land bridge connected them.
Much of what we've learned about early Native Americans is due to discoveries by anthropologists and archaeologists, but as these scientists continue to research and explore, we are learning more and more about these early people. |
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Across a Land Bridge: About 30,000 years ago, the most recent Ice Age began. As temperatures fell, much of Earth was covered by glaciers, sheets of ice up to a mile thick. With water locked up in the glaciers, the level of the oceans dropped 200 feet. This exposed a wide bridge of land between Asia and North America that scientists call Beringia (bear-IN-jee-uh). Over thousands of years, the Siberian nomads made their way across the bridge to populate North and South America.
Task B: American Indian Cultural Regions
The First Americans Adapt: American Indians lived in a variety of places, from snowy forests to dry deserts and vast grasslands. Each of these kinds of places is an environment. An environment includes everything that surrounds us—land, water, animals, and plants. Each environment also has a climate, or longterm weather pattern. Groups of American Indians survived by adapting, or changing, their style of living to suit each environment, its climate, and its natural resources.
Using Natural Resources: American Indians learned to use the natural resources in their environments for food, clothing, and shelter. In the frigid regions of the far north, early Americans survived by hunting caribou in the summer and sea mammals in the winter. They fashioned warm, hooded clothing from animal skins. To avoid being blinded by the glare of the sun shining on snow, they made goggles out of bone with slits to see through. The people of the north lived most of the year in houses made from driftwood and animal skins. In winter, hunters built temporary shelters called iglus (IG-looz) out of blocks of snow.
Using Natural Resources: American Indians learned to use the natural resources in their environments for food, clothing, and shelter. In the frigid regions of the far north, early Americans survived by hunting caribou in the summer and sea mammals in the winter. They fashioned warm, hooded clothing from animal skins. To avoid being blinded by the glare of the sun shining on snow, they made goggles out of bone with slits to see through. The people of the north lived most of the year in houses made from driftwood and animal skins. In winter, hunters built temporary shelters called iglus (IG-looz) out of blocks of snow.
American Indian Cultural Regions Map
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American Indian Cultural Regions: Over generations, groups of American Indians developed their own cultures, or ways of life. Many became part of larger groupings that were loosely organized under common leaders. Groups living in the same type of environment often adapted in similar ways. Forest dwellers often lived in houses covered with tree bark, while many desert peoples made shelters out of branches covered with brush.
Using such artifacts (items made by people), historians have grouped American Indian peoples into cultural regions. A cultural region is made up of people who share a similar language and way of life. By the 1400s, between 1 and 2 million American Indians lived in ten major cultural regions north of Mexico. |
Arctic
The Arctic cultural region extends throughout the northernmost regions of Canada and Alaska. Much of the Arctic region is made up of tundra, a type of climate zone with cold temperatures and no trees. In the winter, the Arctic region's temperatures are below freezing and are often accompanied by snowstorms. During the summer, the temperature is still cool, but the sun rarely sets fully, so it is often bright outside even at night. Because of these extreme conditions, few people called the Arctic cultural region home.
Finding Food: The cold climate often made finding food difficult in the tundra since few plants were able to survive the harsh environment. Throughout most of the year, the tundra was covered in a thick layer of frozen soil, which (in combination with the continuous daylight in summer and the powerful winds all year long) prevented many plants from surviving in the region. The vegetation that was hardy enough to survive the harsh conditions was usually inedible to humans. Without edible food to find or grow, the people of the region could not rely on agriculture to survive. This vegetation did, however, attract herds of caribou and other animals to the region. During the summer months, the people of the Arctic followed the caribou into the tundra for food. As winter approached, they would migrate to the coast of the Arctic Ocean and hunt sea mammals and fish.
Settling the Arctic: Though some Arctic people created large permanent settlements along the coast, many others migrated between the coast and tundra in search of food. As they did, their requirements for a shelter changed. Scarce resources often influenced what kinds of shelters they could create, as well. During the summer months, as they followed caribou through the tundra, the people of the Arctic built movable animal-skin tents. These tents provided shelter from the cold and harsh winds, but also allowed the people to easily follow the caribou herds. In the winter months, these tribes did not need to move as often in search of food. However, without trees, the options for shelter were limited. Many built temporary shelters called iglus (IG-looz) out of blocks of snow or partially underground homes made out of stone or soil. These shelters kept them warm during frigid winters.
Finding Food: The cold climate often made finding food difficult in the tundra since few plants were able to survive the harsh environment. Throughout most of the year, the tundra was covered in a thick layer of frozen soil, which (in combination with the continuous daylight in summer and the powerful winds all year long) prevented many plants from surviving in the region. The vegetation that was hardy enough to survive the harsh conditions was usually inedible to humans. Without edible food to find or grow, the people of the region could not rely on agriculture to survive. This vegetation did, however, attract herds of caribou and other animals to the region. During the summer months, the people of the Arctic followed the caribou into the tundra for food. As winter approached, they would migrate to the coast of the Arctic Ocean and hunt sea mammals and fish.
Settling the Arctic: Though some Arctic people created large permanent settlements along the coast, many others migrated between the coast and tundra in search of food. As they did, their requirements for a shelter changed. Scarce resources often influenced what kinds of shelters they could create, as well. During the summer months, as they followed caribou through the tundra, the people of the Arctic built movable animal-skin tents. These tents provided shelter from the cold and harsh winds, but also allowed the people to easily follow the caribou herds. In the winter months, these tribes did not need to move as often in search of food. However, without trees, the options for shelter were limited. Many built temporary shelters called iglus (IG-looz) out of blocks of snow or partially underground homes made out of stone or soil. These shelters kept them warm during frigid winters.
Northwest Coast
The Northwest Coast cultural region extends from southern Oregon into Canada. Winters along the ocean are cold but not icy, and summers are cool. To the east, thick forests of fir, spruce, and cedar cover rugged mountains. The mountains trap Pacific storms, so there is heavy rainfall much of the year.
Abundant Food: Northwest people found food plentiful, particularly that taken from the sea. They built their villages along the narrow beaches and bays of the coastline and on nearby islands where they gathered clams, other shellfish, and seaweed from shallow waters. They ventured onto the sea in canoes to hunt seals, sea lions, and whales, as well as halibut and other fish. The forests provided deer, moose, bear, elk, beaver, and mountain goat. For each kind of creature, hunters developed special weapons. To catch seals, for example, they made long wooden harpoons, or spears. The harpoon had a barbed tip made of bone that held firmly in the seal's hide once it was struck, and at the other end, hunters fastened a long rope so that they would not lose either the weapon or their prey. In early summer, masses of salmon swam from the ocean up the rivers to lay their eggs. Men built wooden fences across the rivers to block the fish, making them easier to net. Women dried salmon meat so that it could be eaten all year long.
Builders and Carvers: The forests of the Northwest provided materials for houses and many useful objects. Using wedges and stone-headed sledgehammers, men cut long, thin boards from logs or living trees. They then joined them together to build large, sturdy houses. To keep out the rain, they made roof shingles out of large sheets of cedar bark. Women cut strips from the soft inner bark and used them to make baskets, mats, rope, and blankets. They may have even woven the strips of bark into waterproof capes. With abundant food nearby, the Northwest people had time to practice crafts. Women made decorative shell buttons and sewed them onto their clothing with ivory needles. Men used tools such as wooden wedges, bone drills, stone chisels, and stone knives to carve detailed animal masks and wooden bowls.
Abundant Food: Northwest people found food plentiful, particularly that taken from the sea. They built their villages along the narrow beaches and bays of the coastline and on nearby islands where they gathered clams, other shellfish, and seaweed from shallow waters. They ventured onto the sea in canoes to hunt seals, sea lions, and whales, as well as halibut and other fish. The forests provided deer, moose, bear, elk, beaver, and mountain goat. For each kind of creature, hunters developed special weapons. To catch seals, for example, they made long wooden harpoons, or spears. The harpoon had a barbed tip made of bone that held firmly in the seal's hide once it was struck, and at the other end, hunters fastened a long rope so that they would not lose either the weapon or their prey. In early summer, masses of salmon swam from the ocean up the rivers to lay their eggs. Men built wooden fences across the rivers to block the fish, making them easier to net. Women dried salmon meat so that it could be eaten all year long.
Builders and Carvers: The forests of the Northwest provided materials for houses and many useful objects. Using wedges and stone-headed sledgehammers, men cut long, thin boards from logs or living trees. They then joined them together to build large, sturdy houses. To keep out the rain, they made roof shingles out of large sheets of cedar bark. Women cut strips from the soft inner bark and used them to make baskets, mats, rope, and blankets. They may have even woven the strips of bark into waterproof capes. With abundant food nearby, the Northwest people had time to practice crafts. Women made decorative shell buttons and sewed them onto their clothing with ivory needles. Men used tools such as wooden wedges, bone drills, stone chisels, and stone knives to carve detailed animal masks and wooden bowls.
California
The California cultural region stretches from southern Oregon through Baja California. Ocean storms bring winter rains to this region. Summers are hot and dry, particularly inland. The California region includes not only the coast, but also the coastal foothills, an inland valley, deserts, and the western side of the Sierra Nevada mountain range. Over 100 different groups made their homes in these diverse environments, more than in any other cultural region.
Many Sources of Food: Groups living along the coast of northern California depended on salmon for much of their food, while farther south, coastal people relied more on shellfish. Away from the coast, groups hunted deer with bows and arrows, set snares to trap rabbits, and used nets to capture ducks. California people also gathered roots, berries, and pine nuts. Most people in the region relied on acorns from oak trees as a basic food. In the fall, women harvested the acorns, shelled them, and pounded the nuts into meal. Water was rinsed through the meal to remove its bitterness. Women cooked the meal by mixing it with water in tightly woven baskets and then dropping hot cooking stones into the mixture.
Clothing, Houses, and Baskets: As they worked, the women wore aprons or skirts made from grasses or other plants, or sometimes from leather strips. In colder months, men and women wrapped themselves in animal hides. California people built different types of homes depending on where they lived. In forested areas, men used tools made from the antlers of deer and elk to strip large slabs of bark from redwood trees. They draped these into a cone shape to form a house. In marshy areas, people wove thick mats of reeds to drape over a cone-shaped framework of poles. California people wove plant materials into many useful items. They made cooking baskets, storage baskets, sifters, and fish traps. Women used fine weaving and elegant patterns to make beautiful baskets, decorating their work with clamshells and bird feathers.
Many Sources of Food: Groups living along the coast of northern California depended on salmon for much of their food, while farther south, coastal people relied more on shellfish. Away from the coast, groups hunted deer with bows and arrows, set snares to trap rabbits, and used nets to capture ducks. California people also gathered roots, berries, and pine nuts. Most people in the region relied on acorns from oak trees as a basic food. In the fall, women harvested the acorns, shelled them, and pounded the nuts into meal. Water was rinsed through the meal to remove its bitterness. Women cooked the meal by mixing it with water in tightly woven baskets and then dropping hot cooking stones into the mixture.
Clothing, Houses, and Baskets: As they worked, the women wore aprons or skirts made from grasses or other plants, or sometimes from leather strips. In colder months, men and women wrapped themselves in animal hides. California people built different types of homes depending on where they lived. In forested areas, men used tools made from the antlers of deer and elk to strip large slabs of bark from redwood trees. They draped these into a cone shape to form a house. In marshy areas, people wove thick mats of reeds to drape over a cone-shaped framework of poles. California people wove plant materials into many useful items. They made cooking baskets, storage baskets, sifters, and fish traps. Women used fine weaving and elegant patterns to make beautiful baskets, decorating their work with clamshells and bird feathers.
Great Basin
To the east of California lies the Great Basin, a low area between the Sierra Nevada and the Rocky Mountains. The mountains on either side of this region block the rain, making this land mostly desert. The types of plants that grow in this area are those that need little water, such as low grasses, sagebrush, and craggy piñon (PIN-yon) trees. Many small animals, such as rabbits and lizards, live in this harsh region. With limited food and water, only a few families could live in a place at one time. For this reason, people of the Great Basin traveled in small groups and spent much of their time looking for food.
Extreme Heat and Cold: Wherever people camped, they made temporary shelters of willow poles shaped into a cone and covered with brush or reeds. Almost all year, they carried water in baskets coated with sap from pine trees. When winter came, temperatures dropped below freezing. To keep warm, people made robes out of rabbit hides by twisting long strips of hide so that only the fur showed. Then they wove these strips on a loom. Each adult robe required between 50 and 100 rabbit hides.
Searching for Food: In this arid (dry) environment, most people followed food sources from season to season. In spring, they camped by valley lakes and streams swollen with melted snow. Men attracted migrating ducks with floating decoys made from reeds and, as the birds landed, chased them into nets. Meanwhile, women gathered duck eggs and the tender shoots of cattail plants. When the streams dried up in summer, some Great Basin people enjoyed snakes and grasshoppers as treats. But mostly they ate plants. Women used sharp sticks to dig up roots. They used them to weave flat baskets, called seed beaters, which they used to knock seeds loose from plants. From the mountain slopes, they gathered ripe berries. In autumn, bands harvested pine nuts and hunted rabbits. As winter arrived, most Great Basin people bundled into their rabbit robes in the warmer hills. In huts and caves, they lived off food they had dried earlier, waiting for the ducks to return in spring.
Extreme Heat and Cold: Wherever people camped, they made temporary shelters of willow poles shaped into a cone and covered with brush or reeds. Almost all year, they carried water in baskets coated with sap from pine trees. When winter came, temperatures dropped below freezing. To keep warm, people made robes out of rabbit hides by twisting long strips of hide so that only the fur showed. Then they wove these strips on a loom. Each adult robe required between 50 and 100 rabbit hides.
Searching for Food: In this arid (dry) environment, most people followed food sources from season to season. In spring, they camped by valley lakes and streams swollen with melted snow. Men attracted migrating ducks with floating decoys made from reeds and, as the birds landed, chased them into nets. Meanwhile, women gathered duck eggs and the tender shoots of cattail plants. When the streams dried up in summer, some Great Basin people enjoyed snakes and grasshoppers as treats. But mostly they ate plants. Women used sharp sticks to dig up roots. They used them to weave flat baskets, called seed beaters, which they used to knock seeds loose from plants. From the mountain slopes, they gathered ripe berries. In autumn, bands harvested pine nuts and hunted rabbits. As winter arrived, most Great Basin people bundled into their rabbit robes in the warmer hills. In huts and caves, they lived off food they had dried earlier, waiting for the ducks to return in spring.
PlateAU
North of the Great Basin lies the Plateau cultural region. This region is bounded by the Cascade Range to the west, the Rockies to the east, and the Fraser River, in present-day Canada, to the north. The mountains in this area have dense forests. The flatter, central part of the region is drier and covered with grass and sagebrush. Winters are long and cold, while summers remain gentle. The Plateau people hunted and gathered with the seasons. The cool, wet climate made it fairly easy to find enough to eat. So, too, did the Plateau's two mighty river systems, the Columbia and the Fraser.
Sturdy Houses and Clothing: Plateau people built their villages along major rivers, which provided drinking water, fish, and driftwood to use for shelter and firewood. Food was so plentiful that some groups were able to live in their villages year-round. To stay cool in summer and warm in winter, they built their homes partly underground. They dug a pit, lined it with a frame of logs, and covered everything with saplings, reeds, and mud. Plateau people used their weaving skills to create many kinds of baskets, as well as elaborate hats. As the cold months approached, they spent more time making clothes. In the fall, men hunted antelope and deer. Then women scraped and softened the hides for dresses, leggings, and shirts. They decorated their work with designs of seeds, shells, and other materials.
Camas and Salmon: Although hunting usually provided plenty of meat in the fall, most of the time Plateau people relied on fish and plants for food. In spring, they gathered sprouts of wild onions and carrots from the low grasslands. Their particular favorite was camas, a starchy root related to lilies. Women uprooted it with digging sticks and ate it raw, roasted, or ground into flour. The food most important to Plateau people was salmon. When the salmon migrated upstream, men stood on wooden platforms built over the water. From there, they could spear or net fish easily.
Sturdy Houses and Clothing: Plateau people built their villages along major rivers, which provided drinking water, fish, and driftwood to use for shelter and firewood. Food was so plentiful that some groups were able to live in their villages year-round. To stay cool in summer and warm in winter, they built their homes partly underground. They dug a pit, lined it with a frame of logs, and covered everything with saplings, reeds, and mud. Plateau people used their weaving skills to create many kinds of baskets, as well as elaborate hats. As the cold months approached, they spent more time making clothes. In the fall, men hunted antelope and deer. Then women scraped and softened the hides for dresses, leggings, and shirts. They decorated their work with designs of seeds, shells, and other materials.
Camas and Salmon: Although hunting usually provided plenty of meat in the fall, most of the time Plateau people relied on fish and plants for food. In spring, they gathered sprouts of wild onions and carrots from the low grasslands. Their particular favorite was camas, a starchy root related to lilies. Women uprooted it with digging sticks and ate it raw, roasted, or ground into flour. The food most important to Plateau people was salmon. When the salmon migrated upstream, men stood on wooden platforms built over the water. From there, they could spear or net fish easily.
Southwest
The Southwest cultural region includes present-day Arizona, New Mexico, southern Utah and Colorado, and portions of Texas, Oklahoma, and California. This region has many environments—canyons, mountains, deserts, and flat-topped mesas. It even has two major rivers, the Colorado and the Rio Grande. However, rain seldom falls anywhere in this region. The heat and lack of water made living in the Southwest a challenge. Yet some American Indians learned to love this arid land. “The whole Southwest was a House Made of Dawn,” goes an old American Indian song. “There were many colors on the hills and on the plain, and there was a dark wilderness on the mountains beyond.”
Mesa People: Different groups found different ways of surviving in the Southwest. Some lived as nomadic (wandering) desert hunters. Along the Colorado River, small groups hunted, gathered, and farmed. Others planted fields of corn, beans, and squash on the tops of high, flat areas called mesas. The mesa people lacked trees for building homes. Instead, they made homes from the earth itself. Using bricks of adobe (sun-baked clay), they built thick-walled houses that protected them from summer heat and winter cold. Their villages looked like apartment houses that reached up to five stories high and had up to several hundred rooms. A single village, called a pueblo (PWEH-blo), might house 1,000 people. To protect their bodies from the sun, mesa people wore clothes made of cotton that they grew, spun, and wove into cloth. Using plants and minerals, they dyed fabrics with bright colors.
Corn Culture: Despite living in a desert, the early mesa people grew corn, beans, and squash. Corn was by far the most important crop that the mesa people had. To make the most of infrequent rain, farmers planted near naturally flooded areas like the mouths of large streambeds or the bases of mesas, where rain runoff flowed. Men dug irrigation ditches from the streams to the fields and built small dams to hold summer rain. Women spent many hours a day grinding corn kernels into cornmeal. They cooked the cornmeal into bread in clay ovens. In clay pots, they cooked stews of corn, rabbit meat, and chili peppers.
Mesa People: Different groups found different ways of surviving in the Southwest. Some lived as nomadic (wandering) desert hunters. Along the Colorado River, small groups hunted, gathered, and farmed. Others planted fields of corn, beans, and squash on the tops of high, flat areas called mesas. The mesa people lacked trees for building homes. Instead, they made homes from the earth itself. Using bricks of adobe (sun-baked clay), they built thick-walled houses that protected them from summer heat and winter cold. Their villages looked like apartment houses that reached up to five stories high and had up to several hundred rooms. A single village, called a pueblo (PWEH-blo), might house 1,000 people. To protect their bodies from the sun, mesa people wore clothes made of cotton that they grew, spun, and wove into cloth. Using plants and minerals, they dyed fabrics with bright colors.
Corn Culture: Despite living in a desert, the early mesa people grew corn, beans, and squash. Corn was by far the most important crop that the mesa people had. To make the most of infrequent rain, farmers planted near naturally flooded areas like the mouths of large streambeds or the bases of mesas, where rain runoff flowed. Men dug irrigation ditches from the streams to the fields and built small dams to hold summer rain. Women spent many hours a day grinding corn kernels into cornmeal. They cooked the cornmeal into bread in clay ovens. In clay pots, they cooked stews of corn, rabbit meat, and chili peppers.
Great Plains
The Great Plains cultural region is a vast area of treeless grasslands. In the United States, the Great Plains stretch for about 2,000 miles from the Rockies to the Mississippi Valley, and from Canada to the Gulf of Mexico. The eastern part of this region has more water and softer soil than the western part. In the drier west, short, dense grasses provided perfect grazing for millions of bison.
Bison Hunters: On the eastern Great Plains, various groups took up farming, only going on bison-hunting trips a few months each year. On the western Great Plains, American Indians followed bison herds much of the year. In the spring and early summer, small groups lay in ambush where bison came. The hunters gripped hardwood bows reinforced with strips of bison tendon. Taking aim, each man let loose a wooden arrow tipped with a sharp stone and arrayed with feathers to help it fly straight. In the fall, huge bison herds gathered, and Plains people traveled in larger bands. The men sometimes trapped the bison by circling the herd while on horseback. The men forced the bison closer together as they approached a cliff. Sometimes people set a grass fire or made loud noises to panic the bison until the animals stampeded over the cliff edge. Below, waiting hunters finished them off with spears or bows and arrows.
Using the Bison: Bison provided the main food for Plains people. Women and young girls cut up the bison with bone knives, and extra meat was dried and kept for winter. Plains people used every part of the bison. Bison hides were turned into shields, waterproof containers, warm robes, and bedding. For clothing and bags, women softened the hides with scrapers and rubbed in bison brains and fat. Bison hair and sinew (tough cords made from the animals' tendons) were twined into bowstrings and rope. Horns and hooves became spoons and bowls or were boiled down to make glue. Dried bison dung provided fuel for fires. Bison provided materials for housing as well. Using tendons as thread, women sewed many bison hides together. The skins were then fastened around a tall cone of poles to make a tepee, a Plains word for “dwelling.” Plains people became even more successful hunters when Spanish explorers introduced horses to the region. With horses, they could bring down more bison and move faster and more comfortably to new hunting grounds.
Bison Hunters: On the eastern Great Plains, various groups took up farming, only going on bison-hunting trips a few months each year. On the western Great Plains, American Indians followed bison herds much of the year. In the spring and early summer, small groups lay in ambush where bison came. The hunters gripped hardwood bows reinforced with strips of bison tendon. Taking aim, each man let loose a wooden arrow tipped with a sharp stone and arrayed with feathers to help it fly straight. In the fall, huge bison herds gathered, and Plains people traveled in larger bands. The men sometimes trapped the bison by circling the herd while on horseback. The men forced the bison closer together as they approached a cliff. Sometimes people set a grass fire or made loud noises to panic the bison until the animals stampeded over the cliff edge. Below, waiting hunters finished them off with spears or bows and arrows.
Using the Bison: Bison provided the main food for Plains people. Women and young girls cut up the bison with bone knives, and extra meat was dried and kept for winter. Plains people used every part of the bison. Bison hides were turned into shields, waterproof containers, warm robes, and bedding. For clothing and bags, women softened the hides with scrapers and rubbed in bison brains and fat. Bison hair and sinew (tough cords made from the animals' tendons) were twined into bowstrings and rope. Horns and hooves became spoons and bowls or were boiled down to make glue. Dried bison dung provided fuel for fires. Bison provided materials for housing as well. Using tendons as thread, women sewed many bison hides together. The skins were then fastened around a tall cone of poles to make a tepee, a Plains word for “dwelling.” Plains people became even more successful hunters when Spanish explorers introduced horses to the region. With horses, they could bring down more bison and move faster and more comfortably to new hunting grounds.
Eastern Woodlands
The Eastern Woodlands cultural region reaches from the Mississippi River eastward to the Atlantic Ocean and from Canada to North Carolina. Winter snows and summer rains produced plentiful forests, lakes, and streams. Two major language groups emerged in this cultural region. In most of the territory, people spoke Algonquian (al-GON-kwee-in) languages. In New York and around the southern Great Lakes lived the Iroquoian-speaking groups.
Plentiful Woods: The forests provided most of what the Haudenosaunee (hoe-dee-no-SHOH-nee), commonly referred to as the Iroquois (EER-uh-kwoi), needed to live. For food, hunters prowled through the forests to track deer. Men also hunted bears, trapped beavers, and caught birds and fish. Women gathered fresh greens, nuts, and berries. They made syrup by boiling down sap from maple trees. Instead of walking through the thick forests, Iroquois often paddled log and bark canoes along lakes and rivers. Because waterways also provided fish and drinking water, Iroquois built their villages nearby. Each settlement could have dozens of sturdy log-frame houses covered with elm bark. Such longhouses were usually about 20 feet wide and up to 400 feet long. Several families lived in sections of the longhouse.
Women Farmers: To clear a space for farming, Iroquois men burned away trees and underbrush. Women did the rest of the farming. After hoeing the soil, they planted corn, sometimes several varieties. Around the cornstalks, they let beans twine. Squash grew near the ground, keeping down weeds and holding moisture in the soil. When the planting was done, women tanned deerskin to make skirts, capes, and moccasins (soft shoes). They sometimes scraped corn kernels with bone tools and ground the corn between stones. In the fall, they stored the harvest, often in large bark barrels in the longhouses. Iroquois crops included sunflowers, tobacco, and many vegetables that are still planted in American gardens today.
Plentiful Woods: The forests provided most of what the Haudenosaunee (hoe-dee-no-SHOH-nee), commonly referred to as the Iroquois (EER-uh-kwoi), needed to live. For food, hunters prowled through the forests to track deer. Men also hunted bears, trapped beavers, and caught birds and fish. Women gathered fresh greens, nuts, and berries. They made syrup by boiling down sap from maple trees. Instead of walking through the thick forests, Iroquois often paddled log and bark canoes along lakes and rivers. Because waterways also provided fish and drinking water, Iroquois built their villages nearby. Each settlement could have dozens of sturdy log-frame houses covered with elm bark. Such longhouses were usually about 20 feet wide and up to 400 feet long. Several families lived in sections of the longhouse.
Women Farmers: To clear a space for farming, Iroquois men burned away trees and underbrush. Women did the rest of the farming. After hoeing the soil, they planted corn, sometimes several varieties. Around the cornstalks, they let beans twine. Squash grew near the ground, keeping down weeds and holding moisture in the soil. When the planting was done, women tanned deerskin to make skirts, capes, and moccasins (soft shoes). They sometimes scraped corn kernels with bone tools and ground the corn between stones. In the fall, they stored the harvest, often in large bark barrels in the longhouses. Iroquois crops included sunflowers, tobacco, and many vegetables that are still planted in American gardens today.
Southeast
The Southeast cultural region stretches from the southern part of the Ohio Valley to the Gulf of Mexico and from Texas to the Atlantic Ocean. This region's fertile coastal plains, river valleys, mountains, and swamps all have long, warm, humid summers and mild winters. In this green countryside, the people of the Southeast found growing crops fairly easy.
Towns Built Around Mounds: Some Southeastern peoples built towns dominated by large earthen mounds. The first mounds were likely burial sites. Centuries later, people made mounds several stories high as platforms for temples. Building these mounds took months, even years, because people had to move the dirt one basketful at a time. Workers building mounds had less time to help grow or find food. However, Southeastern groups had developed a type of corn that grew so fast, they could harvest plenty of crops for the year. Farmers raised enough food to feed the people building the mounds. A single Southeastern town might have had 2 to 12 mounds arrayed around a central town plaza. People clustered their houses around these mounds. They built their homes from posts of young trees constructed into a rectangular frame and plastered with mud. Roofs were pointed and made of leaves.
A Fertile Region: Beyond their homes, fields lay in all directions. With the region's long growing season, Southeastern people relied on corn, beans, squash, pumpkins, and sunflowers for most of their food. Women worked the fields with hoes made of stone, shell, or animal shoulder blades fastened to wooden handles. Men sometimes hunted, using blowguns for squirrels, rabbits, and turkeys and bows and arrows for large animals like deer. Sometimes they even brought home alligators and turtles. To complete their varied diet, women gathered edible plants like sweet potatoes and persimmons. They wore short deerskin skirts, so they didn't have to spend much time making clothing. Instead, they had time to fashion rings, earrings, arm rings, and hairpins from stones, shells, bones, and other natural materials.
Towns Built Around Mounds: Some Southeastern peoples built towns dominated by large earthen mounds. The first mounds were likely burial sites. Centuries later, people made mounds several stories high as platforms for temples. Building these mounds took months, even years, because people had to move the dirt one basketful at a time. Workers building mounds had less time to help grow or find food. However, Southeastern groups had developed a type of corn that grew so fast, they could harvest plenty of crops for the year. Farmers raised enough food to feed the people building the mounds. A single Southeastern town might have had 2 to 12 mounds arrayed around a central town plaza. People clustered their houses around these mounds. They built their homes from posts of young trees constructed into a rectangular frame and plastered with mud. Roofs were pointed and made of leaves.
A Fertile Region: Beyond their homes, fields lay in all directions. With the region's long growing season, Southeastern people relied on corn, beans, squash, pumpkins, and sunflowers for most of their food. Women worked the fields with hoes made of stone, shell, or animal shoulder blades fastened to wooden handles. Men sometimes hunted, using blowguns for squirrels, rabbits, and turkeys and bows and arrows for large animals like deer. Sometimes they even brought home alligators and turtles. To complete their varied diet, women gathered edible plants like sweet potatoes and persimmons. They wore short deerskin skirts, so they didn't have to spend much time making clothing. Instead, they had time to fashion rings, earrings, arm rings, and hairpins from stones, shells, bones, and other natural materials.
Exploring (and Claiming) the "New World"
Columbus wasn't the only Spanish explorer seeking gold and glory. After his success, Spain began sending soldiers called Conquistadors across the Atlantic. Their mission was to conquer a vast empire for Spain, and get rich along the way. They also continued to look for a westward water route to Asia. This undiscovered, fabled water route became known as "the Northwest Passage".
New Spain, New France, New England and New Netherlands: Spain and the Conquistadors were first to establish a "New World" colony, and they naturally called it New Spain. However, they weren't the only ones with this idea. Word of the "New World" spread quickly throughout
New Spain, New France, New England and New Netherlands: Spain and the Conquistadors were first to establish a "New World" colony, and they naturally called it New Spain. However, they weren't the only ones with this idea. Word of the "New World" spread quickly throughout
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Europe, and soon enough, other countries like France, England, and the Netherlands were sending their own explorers to the Americas. Some were sent on missions to establish colonies and while others were still obsessed with the mythical "Northwest Passage". Within one hundred years, each of these countries had established their "New World" colonies, named New France, New England, and New Netherland. (They weren't very creative.)
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European Settlements Map
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🇪🇸 - Spain
Cortés Conquers Mexico - In 1519, Hernán Cortés arrived in Mexico with horses and 500 soldiers. There he encountered the powerful Aztecs, who ruled much of Mexico. The Aztecs had never before seen men dressed in armor and riding horses. Some mistook Cortés for a great Aztec god and welcomed him as a hero. They would soon realize their mistake.
After the Spaniards accidentally spread the deadly disease smallpox—which killed large numbers of Aztec warriors— Cortés conquered Tenochtitlán. The Spaniards pulled the city down and used its stones to build Mexico City, the capital of a new Spanish empire called New Spain.
Pizarro Conquers Peru Smallpox also helped another Spanish conquistador, Francisco Pizarro, conquer an empire in South America. In 1532, Pizarro encountered the powerful Inca Empire in present-day Peru. Smallpox had reached Peru many months before Pizarro, killing thousands of Incas and leaving their empire badly divided.
With this division, Pizarro entered the Inca Empire's capital city of Cuzco. Pizarro demanded that the Inca ruler, Atahualpa, convert to Christianity and swear his loyalty to the king of Spain. When Atahualpa refused, Pizarro took him hostage but promised to release him in exchange for gold. To save their ruler, the Incas filled three rooms with gold and silver treasures. Pizarro killed Atahualpa anyway and took over the leaderless Inca Empire. From there, Spanish conquistadors conquered most of South America.
After the Spaniards accidentally spread the deadly disease smallpox—which killed large numbers of Aztec warriors— Cortés conquered Tenochtitlán. The Spaniards pulled the city down and used its stones to build Mexico City, the capital of a new Spanish empire called New Spain.
Pizarro Conquers Peru Smallpox also helped another Spanish conquistador, Francisco Pizarro, conquer an empire in South America. In 1532, Pizarro encountered the powerful Inca Empire in present-day Peru. Smallpox had reached Peru many months before Pizarro, killing thousands of Incas and leaving their empire badly divided.
With this division, Pizarro entered the Inca Empire's capital city of Cuzco. Pizarro demanded that the Inca ruler, Atahualpa, convert to Christianity and swear his loyalty to the king of Spain. When Atahualpa refused, Pizarro took him hostage but promised to release him in exchange for gold. To save their ruler, the Incas filled three rooms with gold and silver treasures. Pizarro killed Atahualpa anyway and took over the leaderless Inca Empire. From there, Spanish conquistadors conquered most of South America.
🇫🇷 - France
Other European countries grew jealous of the Spanish success in the New World, particularly when they saw their ships return full of gold and silver. France sent ships to explore the Atlantic coastline of America. The French not only wanted to colonize new lands that hadn't been claimed by Spain, but also wanted to continue searching for a "Northwest Passage," an all-water route through the North American continent to the Pacific Ocean. Unfortunately for the French and all other European explorers, this Northwest Passage didn't exist. However, their search led them to explore the interior of present-day Canada and the United States. The French didn't find gold in these lands, but they did find beavers. Beaver fur hats were very popular in France, and so the skins were almost as valuable to the explorers who brought them back home to French hat makers.
Unlike the Spanish, who wanted to conquer and enslave the natives, it was important to the French to develop strong relationships with Native Americans so they could trade resources with each other. French fur trappers lived with and learned from the natives, defending friendly tribes from their enemies, but unfortunately also spreading deadly disease. The fur trade between the French and Native Americans continued for many years. In the pursuit of fur, the French continued exploring farther and farther into present-day United States, claiming lands across the Mississippi River all the way to the Rocky Mountains.
Unlike the Spanish, who wanted to conquer and enslave the natives, it was important to the French to develop strong relationships with Native Americans so they could trade resources with each other. French fur trappers lived with and learned from the natives, defending friendly tribes from their enemies, but unfortunately also spreading deadly disease. The fur trade between the French and Native Americans continued for many years. In the pursuit of fur, the French continued exploring farther and farther into present-day United States, claiming lands across the Mississippi River all the way to the Rocky Mountains.
🇬🇧 - England & The Netherlands - 🇳🇱
Although England often found itself at war with France, they had very similar goals in exploring the New World. English explorers began by heading far north in search of a Northwest Passage, leading them into the very northern parts of present-day Canada. Later on, the English mostly stayed along the Atlantic coast of present-day United States, where they wanted to establish colonies. Some unsuccessfully searched for gold, but most tried to build friendly relationships with Native Americans for the purpose of trade. For many years, the English were unsuccessful in building colonies or good relationships.
Meanwhile, the Netherlands sent explorers to the New World. They too were mostly interested in a Northwest Passage, but soon gave up, preferring the rich possibilities of the fur trade. They traded guns and other supplies to the natives in exchange for these valuable furs, and also traded for the land that is now New York City. England refused to accept the Netherlands' land claims in the New World, and quickly drove them out, taking control of their colonies.
Meanwhile, the Netherlands sent explorers to the New World. They too were mostly interested in a Northwest Passage, but soon gave up, preferring the rich possibilities of the fur trade. They traded guns and other supplies to the natives in exchange for these valuable furs, and also traded for the land that is now New York City. England refused to accept the Netherlands' land claims in the New World, and quickly drove them out, taking control of their colonies.
Connecting Two Worlds
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Did Columbus Discover America?: The short answer to that is a resounding "NO!" There is a good amount of evidence suggesting that Christopher Columbus was not the first person to stumble upon the Americas. Clearly, Native Americans were there long before Christopher Columbus even had a thought of sailing west. However, it may come as a surprise to learn that Christopher Columbus wasn't even the first European to reach the "New World". So the question then becomes, why do we study him? If Columbus didn't "discover" America, why does he get so much credit?
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Chris' Legacy - The Columbian Exchange: Columbus died believing he had actually made it to Asia, but the explorers that followed soon realized they had reached a world largely unknown to Europe. Europeans came in droves, searching for gold, God, and glory; hoping for a better life. As more and more people traveled between the "Old World" and the "New World", the exchange of goods and people increased between the two hemispheres. This is why Columbus' accidental "discovery" is such an important event in the history of America: The exchange of goods that followed Columbus' voyages connected the two worlds. This exchange is known as the Columbian Exchange.
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The Columbian Exchange
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Task A: The People vs. Columbus et al.
Columbus Indictment
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Your first act in the lands you “discovered” was to take possession of another people’s territory in the name of an empire thousands of miles away. From the very beginning of your time in the Indies you kidnapped Taíno Indians. Even when they attempted to escape, making it clear that they wanted to leave, you refused to release them.
Your journal shows that your only wish in the Indies was to find gold. The only reason you showed any kindness to the Taínos on your first trip was so they would agree to show you the source of their gold. |
On your second voyage to the Indies, you ordered your men to round up Taínos and had over 500 shipped to Spain as slaves. You told your men to help themselves to the remaining Taíno captives, which they did. This act alone killed several hundred Taínos.
In 1495 you started the policy of forcing Taínos, age 14 and older, to collect gold for you. Those who didn’t return every three months with the amount of gold you demanded were punished by having their hands chopped off. You ordered your men to spread “terror” among the Taínos when there was rumor of resistance.
The list goes on. When you arrived on Hispaniola there may have been as many as a million or even three million Taínos on the island. According to one Spanish priest, by 1542 there were 200 Taínos left. There is no one to blame but you. You were Admiral, you were Viceroy, you were Governor of the island
In 1495 you started the policy of forcing Taínos, age 14 and older, to collect gold for you. Those who didn’t return every three months with the amount of gold you demanded were punished by having their hands chopped off. You ordered your men to spread “terror” among the Taínos when there was rumor of resistance.
The list goes on. When you arrived on Hispaniola there may have been as many as a million or even three million Taínos on the island. According to one Spanish priest, by 1542 there were 200 Taínos left. There is no one to blame but you. You were Admiral, you were Viceroy, you were Governor of the island
Columbus' Men indictment
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Without you, Columbus’ orders to enslave and kill Taínos would have been empty words. There is no evidence that Columbus personally captured slaves or killed anyone with his own hands. You are the ones responsible for the enslavement of first hundreds, then thousands, of Taíno Indians.
You did the dirty work. You raped women. You set dogs on infants. You cut the hands off Taínos who didn’t deliver enough gold. You whipped Taínos if they didn’t work hard enough in the mines. |
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You may try to blame your superiors, Columbus or even King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella. But because someone orders you to commit a crime does not free you of the blame for committing it. You could have said no. There were Spaniards, like priests Antonio de Montesinos and Bartolome' de las Casas, who refused to mistreat Indians and spoke out on their behalf. Why didn't you?
Without the soldier there is no war. Without you there would have been no genocide
Without the soldier there is no war. Without you there would have been no genocide
King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella Indictment
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Without your money, Columbus couldn’t have launched his plan to find the East Indies by sailing west. Without you, he was an unemployed sailor. You hired him to “discover” and claim new lands. Thus you are guilty of conspiracy to steal the territory of people you didn’t even know, who had never bothered or harmed you.
When Columbus returned after his first voyage with several Indian captives, and you rewarded him, you became guilty of kidnapping. You could have ordered Columbus to stop kidnapping Indians. You could have punished him for this illegal act. By not doing anything to stop Columbus and his men, you legalized every crime they committed. |
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In his first letter to you, Columbus wrote that the Indians would make excellent slaves. Right away, you could have ordered him to take no slaves. You did no such thing, and thus became accomplices in all future slave-taking. True, after a while you discouraged Columbus from enslaving people—they mostly died, anyway—but you never punished him for these crimes, which killed hundreds of human beings.
Really, you didn’t care what Columbus did, so long as you got rich. At times, you would order that the Taínos should be treated humanely. But you took no action to stop the Taínos from being forced to work in the mines. They were slaves in everything but name. Had you wanted the cruelty to stop, you could have ordered all your subjects home. But then you wouldn’t have gotten any more gold. And that was what you wanted, right?
Because Columbus was unpopular with other Spaniards, you replaced him as governor. But you never punished him for the crimes committed against Taínos when he was governor. And these crimes continued under the next governor.
Because you were the bosses and because you paid the bills, you have more guilt than had you been the ones wielding the swords and hangmen’s nooses.
Really, you didn’t care what Columbus did, so long as you got rich. At times, you would order that the Taínos should be treated humanely. But you took no action to stop the Taínos from being forced to work in the mines. They were slaves in everything but name. Had you wanted the cruelty to stop, you could have ordered all your subjects home. But then you wouldn’t have gotten any more gold. And that was what you wanted, right?
Because Columbus was unpopular with other Spaniards, you replaced him as governor. But you never punished him for the crimes committed against Taínos when he was governor. And these crimes continued under the next governor.
Because you were the bosses and because you paid the bills, you have more guilt than had you been the ones wielding the swords and hangmen’s nooses.
The Taino People Indictment
While you are the victims of this crime, you are also guilty of committing it. You failed to fight back against the Spaniards. This meant that you brought the fate of slavery and death upon yourselves.
From the very beginning you must have known what Columbus meant to do. He took Taíno captives from other islands and held them against their will. He claimed your land as his own. He was interested only in finding gold. When your people were cut by Spaniards’ swords, Columbus and his men showed no concern. All this you must have known.
From the very beginning you must have known what Columbus meant to do. He took Taíno captives from other islands and held them against their will. He claimed your land as his own. He was interested only in finding gold. When your people were cut by Spaniards’ swords, Columbus and his men showed no concern. All this you must have known.
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Tragically, you let this greedy, violent man get away, so he could return. On his next trip, however, he brought 17 ships and between 1,200 and 1,500 men, all heavily armed. You allowed, even invited, this invasion.
Foolishly, your cacique (leader), Caonabó, killed the 39 men Columbus left behind. Why didn’t Caonabó and the Taínos kill all the Spaniards—including Columbus—before they had a chance to return to Spain? Imagine the different outcome had the Taínos been smart enough to stop Columbus before he could launch the invasion. |
Who knows why the Taínos of Hispaniola did not unite to throw out all the Spaniards? Had Taínos worked together they might have beaten the Spaniards even after Columbus returned. After all, the Spaniards numbered fewer than 2,000; Taínos numbered in the hundreds of thousands, possibly as many as three million. However, as a result of this Taíno failure, all the Native peoples of the Americas suffered.
The System of Empire Indictment
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This gets complicated. You are not a person, but a system. We like to blame crimes on people. But in this case, the real criminal is not human.
True, Columbus’ men did the killing, Columbus gave the orders and King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella paid the bills—and took the profits. But what made them behave the way they did? Were they born evil and greedy? The real blame lies with a system that values property over people. |
European society was organized so that an individual had to own property to feel secure. The more property one owned, the more security, the more control over one’s destiny. There was no security without private ownership of property. If you were poor, you could starve. The Taínos were not perfect, but they had no “poor” and no one starved. Indians commented that Europeans’ love of gold was like a disease. In fact, this attitude was a product of a diseased system.
In order to get more wealth, Columbus and his men took Taínos as slaves, terrorized them into searching out gold and forced them to work on their farms and in their mines. They justified all this by telling themselves that the Taínos weren’t Christian, so “we” can control “their” land and labor. The European system saw only white Christians as full human beings.
It was life in a system that valued private property (especially gold), and approved of violence against foreigners and non-Christians to get it, that made Columbus and his men enslave and kill. Sane people do not kill hundreds of thousands of other human beings. It was a rotten, insane system that led Columbus and the others to behave the way they did. You, as the representatives of this system, are guilty for the genocide committed against Taínos.
As a final test to see who is guilty for the mass murder of the Taínos, ask yourself these questions:
In order to get more wealth, Columbus and his men took Taínos as slaves, terrorized them into searching out gold and forced them to work on their farms and in their mines. They justified all this by telling themselves that the Taínos weren’t Christian, so “we” can control “their” land and labor. The European system saw only white Christians as full human beings.
It was life in a system that valued private property (especially gold), and approved of violence against foreigners and non-Christians to get it, that made Columbus and his men enslave and kill. Sane people do not kill hundreds of thousands of other human beings. It was a rotten, insane system that led Columbus and the others to behave the way they did. You, as the representatives of this system, are guilty for the genocide committed against Taínos.
As a final test to see who is guilty for the mass murder of the Taínos, ask yourself these questions:
- If it had been some other “explorer” besides Columbus to “discover America,” would he have let the Taínos keep their land?
- Would he not have enslaved people?
- Would he not have made them search for gold and work in the mines?